Azhar SH, Lim HY, Tan BK, Angeli V. The unresolved pathophysiology of lymphedema. Front Physiol. 2020;11:137. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2020.00137.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Schulze H, Nacke M, Gutenbrunner C, Hadamitzky C. Worldwide assessment of healthcare personnel dealing with lymphoedema. Health Econ Rev. 2018;8(1):10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13561-018-0194-6.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Beaulac SM, McNair LA, Scott TE, LaMorte WW, Kavanah MT. Lymphedema and quality of life in survivors of early-stage breast cancer. Arch Surg. 2002;137(11):1253–7. https://doi.org/10.1001/archsurg.137.11.1253.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bundred N, Foden P, Todd C, Morris J, Watterson D, Purushotham A, et al. Increases in arm volume predict lymphoedema and quality of life deficits after axillary surgery: a prospective cohort study. Br J Cancer. 2020;123(1):17–25. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41416-020-0844-4.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chang SB, Askew RL, Xing Y, Weaver S, Gershenwald JE, Lee JE, et al. Prospective assessment of postoperative complications and associated costs following inguinal lymph node dissection (ILND) in melanoma patients. Ann Surg Oncol. 2010;17(10):2764–72. https://doi.org/10.1245/s10434-010-1026-z.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Norman SA, Localio AR, Kallan MJ, Weber AL, Torpey HA, Potashnik SL, et al. Risk factors for lymphedema after breast cancer treatment. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2010;19(11):2734–46. https://doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-09-1245.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Shaitelman SF, Cromwell KD, Rasmussen JC, Stout NL, Armer JM, Lasinski BB, Cormier JN. Recent progress in the treatment and prevention of cancer-related lymphedema. CA Cancer J Clin. 2015;65(1):55–81. https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21253.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Schook CC, Mulliken JB, Fishman SJ, Grant FD, Zurakowski D, Greene AK. Primary lymphedema: clinical features and management in 138 pediatric patients. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2011;127(6):2419–31. https://doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0b013e318213a218.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Smeltzer DM, Stickler GB, Schirger A. Primary lymphedema in children and adolescents: a follow-up study and review. Pediatrics. 1985;76(2):206–18.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Johnson AR, Kimball S, Epstein S, Recht A, Lin SJ, Lee BT, et al. Lymphedema incidence after axillary lymph node dissection: quantifying the impact of radiation and the lymphatic microsurgical preventive healing approach. Ann Plast Surg. 2019;82(4S Suppl 3):S234–s41. https://doi.org/10.1097/sap.0000000000001864.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

van der Putte SC, van Limborgh J. The embryonic development of the main lymphatics in man. Acta Morphol Neerl Scand. 1980;18(4):323–35.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yang Y, Oliver G. Development of the mammalian lymphatic vasculature. J Clin Invest. 2014;124(3):888–97. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI71609.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

International Society of L. The diagnosis and treatment of peripheral lymphedema: 2013 Consensus Document of the International Society of Lymphology. Lymphology. 2013;46(1):1–11.

Google Scholar 

Key TJ, Verkasalo PK, Banks E. Epidemiology of breast cancer. Lancet Oncol. 2001;2(3):133–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(00)00254-0.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tao Z, Shi A, Lu C, Song T, Zhang Z, Zhao J. Breast cancer: epidemiology and etiology. Cell Biochem Biophys. 2015;72(2):333–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12013-014-0459-6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

American Cancer Society: Cancer Research News Cancer Updates. https://www.cancer.org/research/acs-research-news.html?tag=content-type:cancer-updates (2024). Accessed 22 January 2024.

Rockson SG, Rivera KK. Estimating the population burden of lymphedema. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2008;1131:147–54. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1413.014.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hayes SC, Johansson K, Stout NL, Prosnitz R, Armer JM, Gabram S, Schmitz KH. Upper-body morbidity after breast cancer: incidence and evidence for evaluation, prevention, and management within a prospective surveillance model of care. Cancer. 2012;118(8 Suppl):2237–49. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.27467.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fisher CS, Margenthaler JA, Hunt KK, Schwartz T. The Landmark Series: Axillary Management in Breast Cancer. Ann Surg Oncol. 2020;27(3):724–9. https://doi.org/10.1245/s10434-019-08154-5.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Giuliano AE, Ballman KV, McCall L, Beitsch PD, Brennan MB, Kelemen PR, et al. Effect of axillary dissection vs no axillary dissection on 10-year overall survival among women with invasive breast cancer and sentinel node metastasis: the ACOSOG Z0011 (Alliance) randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2017;318(10):918–26. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.11470.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Donker M, van Tienhoven G, Straver ME, Meijnen P, van de Velde CJ, Mansel RE, et al. Radiotherapy or surgery of the axilla after a positive sentinel node in breast cancer (EORTC 10981-22023 AMAROS): a randomised, multicentre, open-label, phase 3 non-inferiority trial. Lancet Oncol. 2014;15(12):1303–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(14)70460-7.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Krag DN, Anderson SJ, Julian TB, Brown AM, Harlow SP, Costantino JP, et al. Sentinel-lymph-node resection compared with conventional axillary-lymph-node dissection in clinically node-negative patients with breast cancer: overall survival findings from the NSABP B-32 randomised phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2010;11(10):927–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(10)70207-2.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Veronesi U, Viale G, Paganelli G, Zurrida S, Luini A, Galimberti V, et al. Sentinel lymph node biopsy in breast cancer: ten-year results of a randomized controlled study. Ann Surg. 2010;251(4):595–600. https://doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0b013e3181c0e92a.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kuerer HM, Newman LA, Smith TL, Ames FC, Hunt KK, Dhingra K, et al. Clinical course of breast cancer patients with complete pathologic primary tumor and axillary lymph node response to doxorubicin-based neoadjuvant chemotherapy. J Clin Oncol. 1999;17(2):460–9. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.1999.17.2.460.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ueno NT, Buzdar AU, Singletary SE, Ames FC, McNeese MD, Holmes FA, et al. Combined-modality treatment of inflammatory breast carcinoma: twenty years of experience at M. D. Anderson Cancer Center. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 1997;40(4):321–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002800050664.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Boccardo F, Casabona F, De Cian F, Friedman D, Murelli F, Puglisi M, et al. Lymphatic microsurgical preventing healing approach (LYMPHA) for primary surgical prevention of breast cancer-related lymphedema: over 4 years follow-up. Microsurgery. 2014;34(6):421–4. https://doi.org/10.1002/micr.22254.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cohen SR, Payne DK, Tunkel RS. Lymphedema: strategies for management. Cancer. 2001;92(4 Suppl):980–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0142(20010815)92:4+<980::aid-cncr1410>3.0.co;2-e.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Petrek JA, Senie RT, Peters M, Rosen PP. Lymphedema in a cohort of breast carcinoma survivors 20 years after diagnosis. Cancer. 2001;92(6):1368–77. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0142(20010915)92:6<1368::aid-cncr1459>3.0.co;2-9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rodriguez JR, Hsieh F, Huang CT, Tsai TJ, Chen C, Cheng MH. Clinical features, microbiological epidemiology and recommendations for management of cellulitis in extremity lymphedema. J Surg Oncol. 2020;121(1):25–36. https://doi.org/10.1002/jso.25525.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Brorson H, Ohlin K, Olsson G, Karlsson MK. Breast cancer-related chronic arm lymphedema is associated with excess adipose and muscle tissue. Lymphat Res Biol. 2009;7(1):3–10. https://doi.org/10.1089/lrb.2008.1022.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Goss JA, Greene AK. Sensitivity and specificity of the Stemmer sign for lymphedema: a clinical lymphoscintigraphic study. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2019;7(6):e2295. https://doi.org/10.1097/GOX.0000000000002295.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ridner SH, Dietrich MS, Stewart BR, Armer JM. Body mass index and breast cancer treatment-related lymphedema. Support Care Cancer. 2011;19(6):853–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00520-011-1089-9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Greene AK, Zurakowski D, Goss JA. Body mass index and lymphedema morbidity: comparison of obese versus normal-weight patients. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2020;146(2):402–7. https://doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0000000000007021.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hassanein AH, Maclellan RA, Grant FD, Greene AK. Diagnostic accuracy of lymphoscintigraphy for lymphedema and analysis of false-negative tests. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2017;5(7):e1396. https://doi.org/10.1097/GOX.0000000000001396.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Maclellan RA, Zurakowski D, Voss S, Greene AK. Correlation between lymphedema disease severity and lymphoscintigraphic findings: a c