Exercise promotes brain health. Human and animal studies have demonstrated acute and chronic effects of exercise on brain and cognitive function.1–3 Exercise is not a magic bullet solution to every brain and health condition, but it is one of the most promising and scalable approaches to improve and maintain brain health throughout the lifespan. The purpose of this editorial is to highlight research needs in the field of exercise neuroscience with the aim to clarify the individual variability in response to exercise and to improve precision in using exercise as medicine for brain health.

The benefit of exercise interventions on brain health is evident for different age groups and populations.3 For childhood and adolescence, exercise in school settings is critical given its broad access to the population and its potential to promote healthy brain development and enhance academic achievement.4 In adulthood, few studies show benefits in the maintenance or improvement of cognitive function.3 Nevertheless, further research is essential to optimise these advantages, aiming to enhance cognitive reserve and safeguard cognitive health in later stages of life. Finally, in late adulthood exercise demonstrates benefits across various aspects of brain health affected by ageing. The clinical emphasis should be on personalised recommendations to maximise these benefits.5 The vast amount of evidence is focused on aerobic exercise,3 but other …