Fanger PO, Berg-Munch B, editors. Ventilation and body odor. Proceedings of management of atmospheres in tightly enclosed spaces. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers; 1983.

Logue JM, McKone TE, Sherman MH, Singer BC. Hazard assessment of chemical air contaminants measured in residences. Indoor Air. 2012;21:92–109.

Article  Google Scholar 

Seppänen O, Fisk WJ, Mendell MJ. Association of ventilation rates and CO2 concentrations with health and other responses in commercial and institutional buildings. Indoor Air. 1999;9:226–52.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kurnitski J, Kiil M, Wargocki P, Boerstra A, Seppänen O, Olesen B, et al. Respiratory infection risk-based ventilation design method. Build Environ. 2021;206:108387.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Li Y, Leung GM, Tang JW, Yang X, Chao CYH, Lin JZ, et al. Role of ventilation in airborne transmission of infectious agents in the built environment—a multidisciplinary systematic review. Indoor Air. 2007;17:2–18.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Seppänen O, Fisk WJ, Lei QH. Ventilation and performance in office work. Indoor Air. 2006;16:28–36.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Strøm‐Tejsen P, Zukowska D, Wargocki P, Wyon DP. The effects of bedroom air quality on sleep and next‐day performance. Indoor Air. 2016;26:679–86.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

CDC. How COVID-19 spreads. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2022. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/how-covid-spreads.html.

Rabin RC, Anthes E. The virus is an airborne threat, the C.D.C. acknowledges. New York Times. 2021.

International Society of Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Scientific and Technical Committee 34. Indoor environmental quality guidelines database. 2022. http://www.ieqguidelines.org/.

ASHRAE. ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2022. Ventilation and acceptable indoor air quality. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.; 2022.

CEN. EN 16798-1: 2019 energy performance of buildings—ventilation for buildings—part 1: indoor environmental input parameters for design and assessment of energy performance of buildings addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment, lighting and acoustics. CEN (European Committtee for Standardization); 2019.

Batterman S. Review and extension of CO2-based methods to determine ventilation rates with application to school classrooms. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2017;14:145.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bekö G, Gustavsen S, Frederiksen M, Bergsøe NC, Kolarik B, Gunnarsen L, et al. Diurnal and seasonal variation in air exchange rates and interzonal airflows measured by active and passive tracer gas in homes. Build Environ. 2016;104:178–87.

Article  Google Scholar 

Persily A. Development and application of an indoor carbon dioxide metric. Indoor Air. 2022;32:e13059.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

ASHRAE. ASHRAE position document on indoor carbon dioxide. 2022. https://www.ashrae.org/file%20library/about/position%20documents/pd_indoorcarbondioxide_2022.pdf

Fisk W, Wargocki P, Zhang X. Do indoor CO2 levels directly affect perceived air quality, health, or work performance? ASHRAE J. 2019;61:70–7.

Google Scholar 

Nordic Ventilation Group. Health-based target ventilation rates and design method for reducing exposure to airborne respiratory infectious diseases. 2022. http://www.scanvac.eu.

International WELL Building Institute. WELL v2. 2023. https://v2.wellcertified.com/en/wellv2/overview/.

Lowther SD, Dimitroulopoulou S, Foxall K, Shrubsole C, Cheek E, Gadeberg B, et al. Low level carbon dioxide indoors—a pollution indicator or a pollutant? A health-based perspective. Environments. 2021;8:125.

Article  Google Scholar 

Wei G, Yu X, Fang L, Wang Q, Tanaka T, Amano K, et al. A review and comparison of the indoor air quality requirements in selected building standards and certifications. Build Environ. 2022;226:109709.

Article  Google Scholar 

Abdul-Wahab SA, En SCF, Elkamel A, Ahmadi L, Yetilmezsoy K. A review of standards and guidelines set by international bodies for the parameters of indoor air quality. Atmos Pollut Res. 2015;6:751–67.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

NIOSH. NIOSH pocket guide to chemical hazards. Washington, DC, USA: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH); 2007.

REHVA. Health-based target ventilation rates and design method for reducing exposure to airborne respiratory infectious disease: REHVA proposal for post-COVID target ventilation rates. Federation of European Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Associations (REHVA); 2022.

Kurnitski J, Kiil M, Mikola A, Võsa K-V, Aganovic A, Schild P, et al. Post-COVID ventilation design: infection risk-based target ventilation rates and point source ventilation effectiveness. Energy Build. 2023;296:113386.

Article  Google Scholar 

Cain WS, Leaderer BP, Isseroff R, Berglund LG, Huey RJ, Lipsitt ED, et al. Ventilation requirements in buildings— I. Control of occupancy odor and tobacco smoke odor. Atmos Environ. 1983;17:1183–97.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Persily A. Challenges in developing ventilation and indoor air quality standards: the story of ASHRAE Standard 62. Build Environ. 2015;91:61–9.

Article  Google Scholar 

Locher WG. Max von Pettenkofer (1818–1901) as a pioneer of modern hygiene and preventive medicine. Environ Health Prev Med. 2007;12:238–45.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yaglou C, Riley E, Coggins D. Ventilation requirements. ASHVE Trans. 1936;42:133–62.

Google Scholar 

ASTM. D6245—18 standard guide for using indoor carbon dioxide concentrations to evaluate indoor air quality and ventilation. West Conshohocken, PA, USA: ASTM; 2018.

Carrer P, de Oliveira Fernandes E, Santos H, Hänninen O, Kephalopoulos S, Wargocki P. On the development of health-based ventilation guidelines: principles and framework. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15:1360.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

ASHRAE. ASHRAE Standard 62-1989. Ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc.; 1989.

Environmental Modelling Group (EMG) Scientific Pandemic Insights Group on Behaviours (SPI-B). Application of CO2 monitoring as an approach to managing ventilation to mitigate SARS-CoV-2 transmission. 2021. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/992966/S1256_EMG_SPI-B_Application_of_CO2_monitoring_as_an_approach_to_managing_ventilation_to_mitigate_SARS-CoV-2_transmission.pdf.

Persily A. Indoor carbon dioxide as metric of ventilation and IAQ: Yes or No or Maybe. AIVC 2017 Workshop on IAQ Metrics. 2017.

Lu X, Pang Z, Fu Y, O’Neill Z. The nexus of the indoor CO2 concentration and ventilation demands underlying CO2-based demand-controlled ventilation in commercial buildings: a critical review. Build Environ. 2022;218:109116.

Article  Google Scholar 

Mendell MJ, Eliseeva EA, Davies MM, Spears M, Lobscheid A, Fisk WJ, et al. Association of classroom ventilation with reduced illness absence: a prospective study in California elementary schools. Indoor Air. 2013;23:515–28.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Carrer P, Wargocki P, Fanetti A, Bischof W, Fernandes EDO, Hartmann T, et al. What does the scientific literature tell us about the ventilation–health relationship in public and residential buildings? Build Environ. 2015;94:273–86.

Article  Google Scholar 

Sundell J, Levin H, Nazaroff WW, Cain WS, Fisk WJ, Grimsrud DT, et al. Ventilation rates and health: multidisciplinary review of the scientific literature. Indoor Air. 2011;21:191–204.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lancet COVID-19 Commission TFoSW, Safe School, and Safe Travel. Proposed non-infectious air delivery rates (NADR) for reducing exposure to airborne respiratory infectious diseases. 2022. https://covid19commission.org/s/Lancet-Covid-Commission-TF-Report-Nov-2022.pdf.

CDC. Ventilation in buildings. Atlanta: Center for Disease Control and Prevention; 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/ventilation.html#print.

ASHRAE. ASHRAE publishes standard 241, control of infectious aerosols. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers; 2023. https://www.ashrae.org/about/news/2023/ashrae-publishes-standard-241-control-of-infectious-aerosols.

Kabirikopaei A, Lau J. Uncertainty analysis of various CO2-Based tracer-gas methods for estimating seasonal ventilation rates in classrooms with different mechanical systems. Build Environ. 2020;179:107003.

Article  Google Scholar 

NIST. Quick Indoor CO2 (QICO2) Tool. National Institute of Science and Technology; 2022. https://www.nist.gov/services-resources/software/quick-indoor-co2-qico2-tool.

Persily A, Polidora B. Indoor carbon dioxide metric analysis tool, Technical Note (NIST TN). 2022. https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.TN.2213.

Peng Z, Jimenez JL. Exhaled CO2 as a COVID-19 infection risk proxy for different indoor environments and activities. Environ Sci Technol Lett. 2021;8:392–7.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Earth System Research Laboratories. Trends in atmospheric carbon dioxide. National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration; 2021. https://gml.noaa.gov/ccgg/trends/.