Rahib L, Smith BD, Aizenberg R, Rosenzweig AB, Fleshman JM, Matrisian LM. Projecting cancer incidence and deaths to 2030: the unexpected burden of thyroid, liver, and pancreas cancers in the United States. Cancer Res. 2014;74:2913–21.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Michl P, Krug S. Overcoming immune evasion in pancreatic cancer: the combination matters. Gut. 2018;67:997–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vege SS, Pandol SJ. Advances in pancreatic cancer, intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms, and pancreatitis. Gastroenterology. 2018;155:581–3.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Martinez-Outschoorn UE, Peiris-Pagés M, Pestell RG, Sotgia F, Lisanti MP. Cancer metabolism: a therapeutic perspective. Nat Rev Clin Oncol. 2017;14:11–31.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wolf A, Agnihotri S, Micallef J, Mukherjee J, Sabha N, Cairns R, et al. Hexokinase 2 is a key mediator of aerobic glycolysis and promotes tumor growth in human glioblastoma multiforme. J Exp Med. 2011;208:313–26.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ying H, Kimmelman AC, Lyssiotis CA, Hua S, Chu GC, Fletcher-Sananikone E, et al. Oncogenic Kras maintains pancreatic tumors through regulation of anabolic glucose metabolism. Cell. 2012;149:656–70.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tanner LB, Goglia AG, Wei MH, Sehgal T, Parsons LR, Park JO, et al. Four key steps control glycolytic flux in mammalian cells. Cell Syst. 2018;7:49-62.e8.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Vander Heiden MG, Cantley LC, Thompson CB. Understanding the Warburg effect: the metabolic requirements of cell proliferation. Science. 2009;324:1029–33.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wilson JE. Isozymes of mammalian hexokinase: structure, subcellular localization and metabolic function. J Exp Biol. 2003;206:2049–57.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Anderson M, Marayati R, Moffitt R, Yeh JJ. Hexokinase 2 promotes tumor growth and metastasis by regulating lactate production in pancreatic cancer. Oncotarget. 2017;8:56081–94.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shi T, Ma Y, Cao L, Zhan S, Xu Y, Fu F, et al. B7–H3 promotes aerobic glycolysis and chemoresistance in colorectal cancer cells by regulating HK2. Cell Death Dis. 2019;10:308.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dai W, Wang F, Lu J, Xia Y, He L, Chen K, et al. By reducing hexokinase 2, resveratrol induces apoptosis in HCC cells addicted to aerobic glycolysis and inhibits tumor growth in mice. Oncotarget. 2015;6:13703–17.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Patra KC, Wang Q, Bhaskar PT, Miller L, Wang Z, Wheaton W, et al. Hexokinase 2 is required for tumor initiation and maintenance and its systemic deletion is therapeutic in mouse models of cancer. Cancer Cell. 2013;24:213–28.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lee HJ, Li CF, Ruan D, He J, Montal ED, Lorenz S, et al. Non-proteolytic ubiquitination of Hexokinase 2 by HectH9 controls tumor metabolism and cancer stem cell expansion. Nat Commun. 2019;10:2625.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yu X, He T, Tong Z, Liao L, Huang S, Fakhouri WD, et al. Molecular mechanisms of TWIST1-regulated transcription in EMT and cancer metastasis. EMBO Rep. 2023;24: e56902.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Fang J, Luo S, Lu Z. HK2: gatekeeping microglial activity by tuning glucose metabolism and mitochondrial functions. Mol Cell. 2023;83:829–31.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ciscato F, Ferrone L, Masgras I, Laquatra C, Rasola A. Hexokinase 2 in cancer: a prima donna playing multiple characters. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22:4716.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yang L, Hou Y, Yuan J, Tang S, Zhang H, Zhu Q, et al. Twist promotes reprogramming of glucose metabolism in breast cancer cells through PI3K/AKT and p53 signaling pathways. Oncotarget. 2015;6:25755–69.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhang B, Chan SH, Liu XQ, Shi YY, Dong ZX, Shao XR, et al. Targeting hexokinase 2 increases the sensitivity of oxaliplatin by Twist1 in colorectal cancer. J Cell Mol Med. 2021;25:8836–49.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Demontis S, Rigo C, Piccinin S, Mizzau M, Sonego M, Fabris M, et al. Twist is substrate for caspase cleavage and proteasome-mediated degradation. Cell Death Differ. 2006;13:335–45.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang XX, Yin GQ, Zhang ZH, Rong ZH, Wang ZY, Du DD, et al. TWIST1 transcriptionally regulates glycolytic genes to promote the Warburg metabolism in pancreatic cancer. Exp Cell Res. 2020;386: 111713.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vaupel P, Schmidberger H, Mayer A. The Warburg effect: essential part of metabolic reprogramming and central contributor to cancer progression. Int J Radiat Biol. 2019;95:912–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang F, Liu H, Hu L, Liu Y, Duan Y, Cui R, et al. The Warburg effect in human pancreatic cancer cells triggers cachexia in athymic mice carrying the cancer cells. BMC Cancer. 2018;18:360.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Schwartz L, Supuran CT, Alfarouk KO. The Warburg Effect and the Hallmarks of Cancer. Anticancer Agents Med Chem. 2017;17:164–70.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Thisse B, el Messal M, Perrin-Schmitt F. The twist gene: isolation of a Drosophila zygotic gene necessary for the establishment of dorsoventral pattern. Nucleic Acids Res. 1987;15:3439–53.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yu J, Xie F, Bao X, Chen W, Xu Q. miR-300 inhibits epithelial to mesenchymal transition and metastasis by targeting Twist in human epithelial cancer. Mol Cancer. 2014;13:121.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Li N, Wang C, Zhang P, You S. Emodin inhibits pancreatic cancer EMT and invasion by up-regulating microRNA-1271. Mol Med Rep. 2018;18:3366–74.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Li K, Xu B, Xu G, Liu R. CCR7 regulates Twist to induce the epithelial-mesenchymal transition in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. Tumour Biol. 2016;37:419–24.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhu X, Han S, Wu S, Bai Y, Zhang N, Wei L. Dual role of twist1 in cancer-associated fibroblasts and tumor cells promoted epithelial-mesenchymal transition of esophageal cancer. Exp Cell Res. 2019;375:41–50.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yang-Hartwich Y, Tedja R, Roberts CM, Goodner-Bingham J, Cardenas C, Gurea M, et al. p53-Pirh2 complex promotes twist1 degradation and inhibits EMT. Mol Cancer Res. 2019;17:153–64.

Article  CAS  PubMed