European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Factsheet about leptospirosis. ECDC https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/leptospirosis/factsheet#:~:Text=Leptospirosis%20is%20the%20most%20widespread,Mediterranean%20and%20East%20European%20regions (2017).

Haake, D. A. & Levett, P. N. Leptospirosis in humans. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 387, 65–97 (2015).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bolin, C. A. & Koellner, P. Human-to-human transmission of Leptospira interrogans by milk. J. Infect. Dis. 158, 246–247 (1988).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Carles, G., Montoya, E., Joly, F. & Peneau, C. Leptospirosis and pregnancy. Eleven cases in French Guyana. J. Gynecol. Obstet. Biol. Reprod. 24, 418–421 (1995).

CAS  Google Scholar 

Evangelista, K. V. & Coburn, J. Leptospira as an emerging pathogen: a review of its biology, pathogenesis and host immune responses. Future Microbiol. 5, 1413–1425 (2010).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Raddi, G. et al. Three-dimensional structures of pathogenic and saprophytic leptospira species revealed by cryo-electron tomography. J. Bacteriol. 194, 1299–1306 (2012).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Vincent, A. T. et al. Revisiting the taxonomy and evolution of pathogenicity of the genus Leptospira through the prism of genomics. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 13, e0007270 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kędzierska-Mieszkowska, S. Sigma factors of RNA polymerase in the pathogenic spirochaete Leptospira interrogans, the causative agent of leptospirosis. FASEB J. 37, e23163 (2023).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Guglielmini, J. et al. Genus-wide Leptospira core genome multilocus sequence typing for strain taxonomy and global surveillance. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 13, e0007374 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Costa, F. et al. Global morbidity and mortality of leptospirosis: a systematic review. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 9, e0003898 (2015).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Weil, A. Ueber einer eigenhuemliche, mit milztumor, icterus un nephritis einhergehende, acute infektionskrankheit. Deutsch Arch. Klin. Med. 109, 209–232 (1886).

Google Scholar 

Clemente, B. M., Pineda-Cortel, M. R. & Villaflores, O. Evaluating immunochromatographic test kits for diagnosis of acute human leptospirosis: a systematic review. Heliyon 8, e11829 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Limmathurotsakul, D. et al. Fool’s gold: why imperfect reference tests are undermining the evaluation of novel diagnostics: a reevaluation of 5 diagnostic tests for leptospirosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 55, 322–331 (2012).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rajapakse, S., Rodrigo, C., Handunnetti, S. M. & Fernando, S. D. Current immunological and molecular tools for leptospirosis: diagnostics, vaccine design, and biomarkers for predicting severity. Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob. 14, 2 (2015).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Boss, J. et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of leptospira spp. in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic using disk diffusion. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 100, 1073–1078 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chawla, V., Trivedi, T. H. & Yeolekar, M. E. Epidemic of leptospirosis: an ICU experience. J. Assoc. Physicians India 52, 619–622 (2004).

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Levett, P. N. Leptospirosis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14, 296–326 (2001).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bharti, A. R. et al. Leptospirosis: a zoonotic disease of global importance. Lancet Infect. Dis. 3, 757–771 (2003).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Munoz-Zanzi, C. et al. A systematic literature review of leptospirosis outbreaks worldwide, 1970–2012. Rev. Panam. Salud Publica 44, e78 (2020).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zeng, Z., Zhan, J., Chen, L., Chen, H. & Cheng, S. Global, regional, and national dengue burden from 1990 to 2017: a systematic analysis based on the global burden of disease study 2017. eClinicalMedicine https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100712 (2021).

Allan, K. J. et al. Epidemiology of leptospirosis in Africa: a systematic review of a neglected zoonosis and a paradigm for ‘One Health’ in Africa. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 9, e0003899 (2015).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gizamba, J. M. & Mugisha, L. Leptospirosis in humans and selected animals in sub-Saharan Africa, 2014–2022: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Infect. Dis. 23, 649 (2023).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Beauté, J. et al. Epidemiology of reported cases of leptospirosis in the EU/EEA, 2010 to 2021. Euro Surveill. https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.Es.2024.29.7.2300266 (2024).

Lau, C. L., Smythe, L. D., Craig, S. B. & Weinstein, P. Climate change, flooding, urbanisation and leptospirosis: fuelling the fire? Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 104, 631–638 (2010).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cann, K. F., Thomas, D. R., Salmon, R. L., Wyn-Jones, A. P. & Kay, D. Extreme water-related weather events and waterborne disease. Epidemiol. Infect. 141, 671–686 (2013).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Baharom, M. et al. Environmental and occupational factors associated with leptospirosis: a systematic review. Heliyon 10, e23473 (2024).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mwachui, M. A., Crump, L., Hartskeerl, R., Zinsstag, J. & Hattendorf, J. Environmental and behavioural determinants of leptospirosis transmission: a systematic review. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 9, e0003843 (2015).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hartskeerl, R. A., Collares-Pereira, M. & Ellis, W. A. Emergence, control and re-emerging leptospirosis: dynamics of infection in the changing world. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 17, 494–501 (2011).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hagedoorn, N. N. et al. Global distribution of Leptospira serovar isolations and detections from animal host species: a systematic review and online database. Trop. Med. Int. Health 29, 161–172 (2024).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Allan, K. J. et al. Assessment of animal hosts of pathogenic Leptospira in northern Tanzania. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 12, e0006444 (2018).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chadsuthi, S. et al. Investigation on predominant Leptospira serovars and its distribution in humans and livestock in Thailand, 2010–2015. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 11, e0005228 (2017).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Casanovas-Massana, A. et al. Genetic evidence for a potential environmental pathway to spillover infection of rat-borne leptospirosis. J. Infect. Dis. 225, 130–134 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Faine, S., Adler, B., Bolin, C. & Perolat, P. Leptospira and Leptospirosis Vol. 2 (MediSci, 1999).

Adler, B. & de la Pena Moctezuma, A. Leptospira and leptospirosis. Vet. Microbiol. 140, 287–296 (2010).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bierque, E., Thibeaux, R., Girault, D., Soupé-Gilbert, M.-E. & Goarant, C. A systematic review of Leptospira in water and soil environments. PLoS ONE 15, e0227055 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central