Libby P, Buring JE, Badimon L, Hansson GK, Deanfield J, Bittencourt MS, et al. Atherosclerosis Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2019;5:56.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Martin SS, Aday AW, Allen NB, Almarzooq ZI, Anderson CAM, Arora P et al. 2025 Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics: A Report of US and Global Data From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2025.

Kannel WB, Castelli WP, Gordon T, McNamara PM. Serum cholesterol, lipoproteins, and the risk of coronary heart disease. The Framingham study. Ann Intern Med. 1971;74:1–12.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Dans T, Avezum A, Lanas F, et al. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet. 2004;364:937–52.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Arnett DK, Blumenthal RS, Albert MA, Buroker AB, Goldberger ZD, Hahn EJ, et al. 2019 ACC/AHA guideline on the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2019;140:e596–646.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hansson GK. Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1685–95.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ridker PM, Bhatt DL, Pradhan AD, Glynn RJ, MacFadyen JG, Nissen SE. Inflammation and cholesterol as predictors of cardiovascular events among patients receiving Statin therapy: a collaborative analysis of three randomised trials. Lancet. 2023;401:1293–301.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

US Preventive Services Task Force, Mangione CM, Barry MJ, Nicholson WK, Cabana M, Chelmow D, et al. Statin use for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in adults: US preventive services task force recommendation statement. JAMA. 2022;328:746–53.

Article  Google Scholar 

Grundy SM, Stone NJ, Bailey AL, Beam C, Birtcher KK, Blumenthal RS, AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC, NLA/PCNA Guideline on the Management of Blood Cholesterol. /: Executive Summary: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;73:3168–209.

Fox KM, Wang L, Gandra SR, Quek RGW, Li L, Baser O. Clinical and economic burden associated with cardiovascular events among patients with hyperlipidemia: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2016;16:13.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Berneis KK, Krauss RM. Metabolic origins and clinical significance of LDL heterogeneity. J Lipid Res. 2002;43:1363–79.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Borén J, Chapman MJ, Krauss RM, Packard CJ, Bentzon JF, Binder CJ, et al. Low-density lipoproteins cause atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: pathophysiological, genetic, and therapeutic insights: a consensus statement from the European atherosclerosis society consensus panel. Eur Heart J. 2020;41:2313–30.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ference BA, Yoo W, Alesh I, Mahajan N, Mirowska KK, Mewada A, et al. Effect of long-term exposure to lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol beginning early in life on the risk of coronary heart disease: a Mendelian randomization analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60:2631–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tsimikas S. A test in context: Lipoprotein(a): diagnosis, prognosis, controversies, and emerging therapies. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;69:692–711.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gordon T, Castelli WP, Hjortland MC, Kannel WB, Dawber TR. High density lipoprotein as a protective factor against coronary heart disease. The Framingham study. Am J Med. 1977;62:707–14.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bandeali S, Farmer J. High-density lipoprotein and atherosclerosis: the role of antioxidant activity. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2012;14:101–7.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zakai NA, Minnier J, Safford MM, Koh I, Irvin MR, Fazio S, et al. Race-Dependent association of High-Density lipoprotein cholesterol levels with incident coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2022;80:2104–15.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nordestgaard BG, Nicholls SJ, Langsted A, Ray KK, Tybjærg-Hansen A. Advances in lipid-lowering therapy through gene-silencing technologies. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2018;15:261–72.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Armitage J, Baigent C, Barnes E, Betteridge DJ, Blackwell L, Blazing M, et al. Efficacy and safety of Statin therapy in older people: a meta-analysis of individual participant data from 28 randomised controlled trials. Lancet. 2019;393:407–15.

Article  Google Scholar 

Ridker PM, Moorthy MV, Cook NR, Rifai N, Lee I-M, Buring JE, Inflammation. Cholesterol, Lipoprotein(a), and 30-Year cardiovascular outcomes in women. N Engl J Med. 2024;391:2087–97.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Goff DC, Lloyd-Jones DM, Bennett G, Coady S, D’Agostino RB, Gibbons R, et al. 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the assessment of cardiovascular risk: a report of the American college of cardiology/american heart association task force on practice guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63:2935–59.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP). Expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult treatment panel III). Third report of the National cholesterol education program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult treatment panel III) final report. Circulation. 2002;106:3143–421.

Article  Google Scholar 

Lloyd-Jones DM, Braun LT, Ndumele CE, Smith SC, Sperling LS, Virani SS, et al. Use of risk assessment tools to guide Decision-Making in the primary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: A special report from the American heart association and American college of cardiology. Circulation. 2019;139:e1162–77.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Khan SS, Matsushita K, Sang Y, Ballew SH, Grams ME, Surapaneni A, et al. Development and validation of the American heart association’s PREVENT equations. Circulation. 2024;149:430–49.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Giugni FR, Berry JD, Khera A, Shah AM, de Lemos JA. Precision medicine for cardiovascular prevention and population health: A Bridge too. Far? Circulation. 2024;150:1720–31.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cholesterol Treatment Trialists’ (CTT) Collaboration. Efficacy and safety of more intensive Lowering of LDL cholesterol: a meta-analysis of data from 170 000 participants in 26 randomised trials. Lancet. 2010;376:1670–81.

Article  Google Scholar 

Cholesterol Treatment Trialists’ (CTT), Collaborators, Mihaylova B, Emberson J, Blackwell L, Keech A, Simes J, et al. The effects of Lowering LDL cholesterol with Statin therapy in people at low risk of vascular disease: meta-analysis of individual data from 27 randomised trials. Lancet. 2012;380:581–90.

Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Shepherd J, Cobbe SM, Ford I, Isles CG, Lorimer AR, MacFarlane PW, et al. Prevention of coronary heart disease with Pravastatin in men with hypercholesterolemia. West of Scotland coronary prevention study group. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:1301–7.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Downs JR, Clearfield M, Weis S, Whitney E, Shapiro DR, Beere PA, et al. Primary prevention of acute coronary events with Lovastatin in men and women with average cholesterol levels: results of AFCAPS/TexCAPS. Air force/texas coronary atherosclerosis prevention study. JAMA. 1998;279:1615–22.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yusuf S, Bosch J, Dagenais G, Zhu J, Xavier D, Liu L, et al. Cholesterol Lowering in Intermediate-Risk persons without cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2016;374:2021–31.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kostis WJ, Cheng JQ, Dobrzynski JM, Cabrera J, Kostis JB. Meta-analysis of Statin effects in women versus men. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;59:572–82.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cholesterol Treatment Trialists’ (CTT), Collaboration, Fulcher J, O’Connell R, Voysey M, Emberson J, Blackwell L, et al. Efficacy and safety of LDL-lowering therapy among men and women: meta-analysis of individual data from 174,000 participants in 27 randomised trials. Lancet. 2015;385:1397–405.

Article  Google Scholar 

Ridker PM, Danielson E, Fonseca FAH, Genest J, Gotto AM, Kastelein JJP, et al. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2195–207.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shepherd J, Blauw GJ, Murphy MB, Bollen EL, Buckley BM, Cobbe SM, et al. Pravastatin in elderly individuals at risk of vascular disease (PROSPER): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;360:1623–30.

Article