Ong, K. L. et al. Global, regional, and national burden of diabetes from 1990 to 2021, with projections of prevalence to 2050: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2021. Lancet 402, 203–234 (2023).

Article  Google Scholar 

Lingvay, I., Cohen, R. V., le Roux, C. W. & Sumithran, P. Obesity in adults. Lancet 404, 972–987 (2024).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Linge, J., Birkenfeld, A. L. & Neeland, I. J. Muscle mass and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists: adaptive or maladaptive response to weight loss? Circulation 150, 1288–1298 (2024).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Abdullah bin Ahmed, I. A comprehensive review on weight gain following discontinuation of glucagon‐like peptide‐1 receptor agonists for obesity. J. Obes. 2024, 8056440 (2024).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Westermark, P. et al. Amyloid fibrils in human insulinoma and islets of Langerhans of the diabetic cat are derived from a neuropeptide-like protein also present in normal islet cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 84, 3881–3885 (1987).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Fineman, M., Weyer, C., Maggs, D., Strobel, S. & Kolterman, O. The human amylin analog, pramlintide, reduces postprandial hyperglucagonemia in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Horm. Metab. Res. 34, 504–508 (2002).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Smith, S. R. et al. Sustained weight loss following 12-month pramlintide treatment as an adjunct to lifestyle intervention in obesity. Diabetes Care 31, 1816–1823 (2008).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cooper, G. J. Amylin compared with calcitonin gene-related peptide: structure, biology, and relevance to metabolic disease. Endocr. Rev. 15, 163–201 (1994).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhang, S. et al. The pathogenic mechanism of diabetes varies with the degree of overexpression and oligomerization of human amylin in the pancreatic islet β cells. FASEB J. 28, 5083–5096 (2014).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hay, D. L., Chen, S., Lutz, T. A., Parkes, D. G. & Roth, J. D. Amylin: pharmacology, physiology, and clinical potential. Pharmacol. Rev. 67, 564–600 (2015).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Younk, L. M., Mikeladze, M. & Davis, S. N. Pramlintide and the treatment of diabetes: a review of the data since its introduction. Expert. Opin. Pharmacother. 12, 1439–1451 (2011).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Aronne, L. et al. Progressive reduction in body weight after treatment with the amylin analog pramlintide in obese subjects: a phase 2, randomized, placebo-controlled, dose-escalation study. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 92, 2977–2983 (2007).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lau, D. C. et al. Once-weekly cagrilintide for weight management in people with overweight and obesity: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled and active-controlled, dose-finding phase 2 trial. Lancet 398, 2160–2172 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Enebo, L. B. et al. Safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of concomitant administration of multiple doses of cagrilintide with semaglutide 2·4 mg for weight management: a randomised, controlled, phase 1b trial. Lancet 397, 1736–1748 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hay, D. L., Garelja, M. L., Poyner, D. R. & Walker, C. S. Update on the pharmacology of calcitonin/CGRP family of peptides: IUPHAR Review 25. Br. J. Pharmacol. 175, 3–17 (2018).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Katafuchi, T., Yasue, H., Osaki, T. & Minamino, N. Calcitonin receptor-stimulating peptide: its evolutionary and functional relationship with calcitonin/calcitonin gene-related peptide based on gene structure. Peptides 30, 1753–1762 (2009).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Roberts, A. et al. Molecular and functional characterization of amylin, a peptide associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 86, 9662–9666 (1989).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cooper, G. J. et al. Purification and characterization of a peptide from amyloid-rich pancreases of type 2 diabetic patients. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 84, 8628–8632 (1987).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Westermark, P., Wernstedt, C., O’Brien, T. D., Hayden, D. W. & Johnson, K. H. Islet amyloid in type 2 human diabetes mellitus and adult diabetic cats contains a novel putative polypeptide hormone. Am. J. Pathol. 127, 414–417 (1987).

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ferrier, G. J. M. et al. Expression of the rat amylin (IAPP/DAP) gene. J. Mol. Endocrinol. 3, R1–R4 (1989).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gebre-Medhin, S., Mulder, H., Zhang, Y., Sundler, F. & Betsholtz, C. Reduced nociceptive behavior in islet amyloid polypeptide (amylin) knockout mice. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 63, 180–183 (1998).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dobolyi, A. Central amylin expression and its induction in rat dams. J. Neurochem. 111, 1490–1500 (2009).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rees, T. A. et al. Calcitonin receptor, calcitonin gene-related peptide and amylin distribution in C1/2 dorsal root ganglia. J. Headache Pain. 25, 36 (2024).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hendrikse, E. R., Bower, R. L., Hay, D. L. & Walker, C. S. Molecular studies of CGRP and the CGRP family of peptides in the central nervous system. Cephalalgia 39, 403–419 (2019).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hartter, E. et al. Basal and stimulated plasma levels of pancreatic amylin indicate its co-secretion with insulin in humans. Diabetologia 34, 52–54 (1991).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Moore, C. X. & Cooper, G. J. Co-secretion of amylin and insulin from cultured islet β-cells: modulation by nutrient secretagogues, islet hormones and hypoglycemic agents. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 179, 1–9 (1991).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Banks, W. A. & Kastin, A. J. Differential permeability of the blood-brain barrier to two pancreatic peptides: insulin and amylin. Peptides 19, 883–889 (1998).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Banks, W. A., Kastin, A. J., Maness, L. M., Huang, W. & Jaspan, J. B. Permeability of the blood-brain barrier to amylin. Life Sci. 57, 1993–2001 (1995).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Leckstrom, A., Bjorklund, K., Permert, J., Larsson, R. & Westermark, P. Renal elimination of islet amyloid polypeptide. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 239, 265–268 (1997).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

McLatchie, L. M. et al. RAMPs regulate the transport and ligand specificity of the calcitonin-receptor-like receptor. Nature 393, 333–339 (1998).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Christopoulos, G. et al. Multiple amylin receptors arise from receptor activity-modifying protein interaction with the calcitonin receptor gene product. Mol. Pharmacol. 56, 235–242 (1999).

Article  CAS  PubMed