2019 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures. Alzheimers Dement. 2019;15:321–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2019.01.010.
Oveisgharan S, Arvanitakis Z, Yu L, Farfel J, Schneider JA, Bennett DA. Sex differences in Alzheimer’s disease and common neuropathologies of aging. Acta Neuropathol. 2018;136:887–900. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-018-1920-1.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Buckley RF, Mormino EC, Rabin JS, Hohman TJ, Landau S, Hanseeuw BJ, et al. Sex differences in the association of global amyloid and regional tau deposition measured by positron emission tomography in clinically normal older adults. JAMA Neurol. 2019;76(5):542–51. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.4693.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Tsiknia AA, Edland SD, Sundermann EE, Reas ET, Brewer JB, Galasko D, et al. Sex differences in plasma p-tau181 associations with Alzheimer’s disease biomarkers, cognitive decline, and clinical progression. Mol Psychiatry. 2022;27(10):4314–22. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-022-01675-8.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Mofrad RB, Tijms BM, Scheltens P, Barkhof F, van der Flier WM, Sikkes SA, Teunissen CE. Sex differences in CSF biomarkers vary by Alzheimer disease stage and APOE ε4 genotype. Neurology. 2020;95(17):e2378–88. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000010629.
Shokouhi S, Taylor WD, Albert K, Kang H, Newhouse PA, Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. In vivo network models identify sex differences in the spread of tau pathology across the brain. Alzheimers Dement (Diagn Assess Dis Monit). 2020;12(1): e12016. https://doi.org/10.1002/dad2.12016.
Caldwell JZ, Berg JL, Cummings JL, Banks SJ, Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. Moderating effects of sex on the impact of diagnosis and amyloid positivity on verbal memory and hippocampal volume. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2017;9:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13195-017-0300-8.
Lin KA, Choudhury KR, Rathakrishnan BG, Marks DM, Petrella JR, Doraiswamy PM, Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. Marked gender differences in progression of mild cognitive impairment over 8 years. Alzheimers Dement (N Y). 2015;1(2):103–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trci.2015.07.001.
Altmann A, Tian L, Henderson VW, Greicius MD, Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative Investigators. Sex modifies the APOE-related risk of developing Alzheimer disease. Ann Neurol. 2014;75(4):563–73. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.24135.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Farrer LA, Cupples LA, Haines JL, Hyman B, Kukull WA, Mayeux R, et al. Effects of age, sex, and ethnicity on the association between apolipoprotein E genotype and Alzheimer disease: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 1997;278(16):1349–56. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1997.03550160069041.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Payami H, Zareparsi S, Montee KR, Sexton GJ, Kaye JA, Bird TD, et al. Gender difference in apolipoprotein E-associated risk for familial Alzheimer disease: a possible clue to the higher incidence of Alzheimer disease in women. Am J Hum Genet. 1996;58(4):803.
CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Holland D, Desikan RS, Dale AM, McEvoy LK. Higher rates of decline for women and apolipoprotein E ε4 carriers. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2013;34(12):2287–93. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A3601.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Wang X, Zhou W, Ye T, Lin X, Zhang J, Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. Sex difference in the association of APOE-E4 with memory decline in mild cognitive impairment. J Alzheimers Dis. 2019;69(4):1161–9. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-181234.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Hogervorst E, Williams J, Budge M, Riedel W, Jolles J. The nature of the effect of female gonadal hormone replacement therapy on cognitive function in post-menopausal women: a meta-analysis. Neuroscience. 2000;101(3):485–512. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4522(00)00410-3.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Russell JK, Jones CK, Newhouse PA. The role of estrogen in brain and cognitive aging. Neurotherapeutics. 2019;16:649–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-019-00766-9.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Judd HL, Judd GE, Lucas WE, Yen SS. Endocrine function of the postmenopausal ovary: concentration of androgens and estrogens in ovarian and peripheral vein blood. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1974;39(6):1020–4. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem-39-6-1020.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Rosario ER, Chang L, Head EH, Stanczyk FZ, Pike CJ. Brain levels of sex steroid hormones in men and women during normal aging and in Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol Aging. 2011;32(4):604–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2009.04.008.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Hammond GL, Hirvonen J, Vihko R. Progesterone, androstenedione, testosterone, 5α-dihydrotestosterone and androsterone concentrations in specific regions of the human brain. J Steroid Biochem. 1983;18(2):185–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-4731(83)90086-9.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Davison SL, Davis SR. Androgens in women. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2003;85(2–5):363–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0960-0760(03)00204-8.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Siddiqui AN, Siddiqui N, Khan RA, Kalam A, Jabir NR, Kamal MA, et al. Neuroprotective role of steroidal sex hormones: an overview. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2016;22(5):342–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/cns.12538.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
McEwen BS, Milner TA. Understanding the broad influence of sex hormones and sex differences in the brain. J Neurosci Res. 2017;95(1–2):24–39. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.23809.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Leranth C, Petnehazy O, MacLusky NJ. Gonadal hormones affect spine synaptic density in the CA1 hippocampal subfield of male rats. J Neurosci. 2003;23(5):1588–92. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-05-01588.2003.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Matsumoto A. Hormonally induced neuronal plasticity in the adult motoneurons. Brain Res Bull. 1997;44(4):539–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0361-9230(97)00240-2.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Barreto G, Veiga S, Azcoitia I, Garcia-Segura LM, Garcia-Ovejero D. Testosterone decreases reactive astroglia and reactive microglia after brain injury in male rats: role of its metabolites, oestradiol and dihydrotestosterone. Eur J Neurosci. 2007;25(10):3039–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05563.x.
Lv W, Du N, Liu Y, Fan X, Wang Y, Jia X, et al. Low testosterone level and risk of Alzheimer’s disease in the elderly men: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mol Neurobiol. 2016;53:2679–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-015-9315-y.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Verdile G, Laws SM, Henley D, Ames D, Bush AI, Ellis KA, et al. Associations between gonadotropins, testosterone and β amyloid in men at risk of Alzheimer’s disease. Mol Psychiatry. 2014;19(1):69–75. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2012.147.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Dusi CRA, Morillo LS, Magaldi RM, Machado AN, Liberman S, Jacob FW. Testosterone profile in older men with Alzheimer’s disease. Dement Neuropsychol. 2008;2:289–93. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1980-57642009DN20400010.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Moffat SD, Zonderman AB, Metter EJ, Kawas C, Blackman MR, Harman SM, Resnick SM. Free testosterone and risk for Alzheimer disease in older men. Neurology. 2004;62(2):188–93. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.62.2.188.
Comments (0)