Chentli F, Azzoug S, Mahgoun S. Diabetes mellitus in elderly. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2015;19(6):744.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sud K. Sushant sud. A quandary standpoint of ayurveda on diabetes with associated CVDs. J Ayurveda Integr Med Sci. 2024;9(3):198–203.

Google Scholar 

Pei X, Li Z. Narrative review of comprehensive management strategies for diabetic retinopathy: interdisciplinary approaches and future perspectives. BMJ Public Health. 2025;3(1):e001353.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lachin JM, Nathan DM. Understanding metabolic memory: the prolonged influence of glycemia during the diabetes control and complications trial (DCCT) on future risks of complications during the study of the epidemiology of diabetes interventions and complications (EDIC). Diabetes Care. 2021;44(10):2216–24.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Khan R, Chandra S, Rajalakshmi R, Rani PK, Anantharaman G, Sen A, et al. Prevalence and incidence of visual impairment in patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy in India. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):10513.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kusuhara S, Fukushima Y, Ogura S, Inoue N, Uemura A. Pathophysiology of diabetic retinopathy: the old and the new. Diabetes Metab J. 2018;42(5):364.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ansari P, Tabasumma N, Snigdha NN, Siam NH, Panduru RVNRS, Azam S, et al. Diabetic retinopathy: an overview on mechanisms, pathophysiology and pharmacotherapy. Diabetology. 2022;3(1):159–75.

Google Scholar 

Bek T. Diameter changes of retinal vessels in diabetic retinopathy. Curr Diab Rep. 2017;17(10):82.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Huang H, He J, Johnson D, Wei Y, Liu Y, Wang S, et al. Deletion of placental growth factor prevents diabetic retinopathy and is associated with Akt activation and HIF1α-VEGF pathway inhibition. Diabetes. 2015;64(1):200–12.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lupo G, Motta C, Giurdanella G, Anfuso CD, Alberghina M, Drago F, et al. Role of phospholipases A2 in diabetic retinopathy: in vitro and in vivo studies. Biochem Pharmacol. 2013;86(11):1603–13.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Li J, Wang JJ, Yu Q, Chen K, Mahadev K, Zhang SX. Inhibition of reactive oxygen species by lovastatin downregulates vascular endothelial growth factor expression and ameliorates blood-retinal barrier breakdown in db / db mice. Diabetes. 2010;59(6):1528–38.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Trudeau K, Molina AJA, Roy S. High glucose induces mitochondrial morphology and metabolic changes in retinal pericytes. Invest Opthalmology Visual Sci. 2011;52(12):8657.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Wu Y, Zou H. Research progress on mitochondrial dysfunction in diabetic retinopathy. Antioxidants. 2022;11(11):2250.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

van Dijk HW, Verbraak FD, Kok PHB, Garvin MK, Sonka M, Lee K, et al. Decreased retinal ganglion cell layer thickness in patients with type 1 diabetes. Invest Opthalmology Visual Sci. 2010;51(7):3660.

Google Scholar 

Zhong Y, Zhu Y, He T, Li W, Li Q, Miao Y. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor inhibits hyperglycemia-induced apoptosis and downregulation of synaptic plasticity-related proteins in hippocampal neurons via the PI3K/Akt pathway. Int J Mol Med. 2019;43:294–304.

Sasaki M, Ozawa Y, Kurihara T, Kubota S, Yuki K, Noda K, et al. Neurodegenerative influence of oxidative stress in the retina of a murine model of diabetes. Diabetologia. 2010;53(5):971–9.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cunha-Vaz J. The blood-retinal barrier in the management of retinal disease: EURETINA award lecture. Ophthalmologica. 2017;237(1):1–10.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Campochiaro PA, Brown DM, Awh CC, Lee SY, Gray S, Saroj N, et al. Sustained benefits from ranibizumab for macular edema following central retinal vein occlusion: twelve-month outcomes of a phase III study. Ophthalmology. 2011;118(10):2041–9.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Biswas A, Choudhury AD, Bisen AC, Agrawal S, Sanap SN, Verma SK, et al. Trends in formulation approaches for sustained drug delivery to the posterior segment of the eye. AAPS PharmSciTech. 2023;24(8):217.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tawfik M, Chen F, Goldberg JL, Sabel BA. Nanomedicine and drug delivery to the retina: current status and implications for gene therapy. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2022;395(12):1477–507.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wang Z, Zhang N, Lin P, Xing Y, Yang N. Recent advances in the treatment and delivery system of diabetic retinopathy. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2024;15.

Nathan DM. Diabetes. JAMA. 2015;314(10):1052.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vujosevic S, Aldington SJ, Silva P, Hernández C, Scanlon P, Peto T, et al. Screening for diabetic retinopathy: new perspectives and challenges. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2020;8(4):337–47.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hussain RM, Ciulla TA. Treatment strategies for refractory diabetic macular edema: switching anti-VEGF treatments, adopting corticosteroid-based treatments, and combination therapy. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2016;16(3):365–74.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mansour SE, Browning DJ, Wong K, Flynn HW Jr, Bhavsar AR. The evolving treatment of diabetic retinopathy. Clin Ophthalmol. 2020;14:653–78.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Massin P, Bandello F, Garweg JG, Hansen LL, Harding SP, Larsen M, et al. Safety and efficacy of ranibizumab in diabetic macular edema (RESOLVE study). Diabetes Care. 2010;33(11):2399–405.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mitchell P, Bandello F, Schmidt-Erfurth U, Lang GE, Massin P, Schlingemann RO, et al. The RESTORE study. Ophthalmol. 2011;118(4):615–25.

Google Scholar 

Heier JS, Korobelnik JF, Brown DM, Schmidt-Erfurth U, Do DV, Midena E, et al. Intravitreal aflibercept for diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology. 2016;123(11):2376–85.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gross JG, Glassman AR, Jampol LM, Inusah S, Aiello LP, Antoszyk AN, et al. Panretinal photocoagulation vs intravitreous ranibizumab for proliferative diabetic retinopathy. JAMA. 2015;314(20):2137.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sivaprasad S, Prevost AT, Vasconcelos JC, Riddell A, Murphy C, Kelly J, et al. Clinical efficacy of intravitreal aflibercept versus panretinal photocoagulation for best corrected visual acuity in patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy at 52 weeks (CLARITY): a multicentre, single-blinded, randomised, controlled, phase 2b, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2017;389(10085):2193–203.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Aflibercept. Bevacizumab, or ranibizumab for diabetic macular edema. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(13):1193–203.

Google Scholar 

Zhang W, Geng J, Sang A. Effectiveness of panretinal photocoagulation plus intravitreal anti-VEGF treatment against PRP alone for diabetic retinopathy: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2022;13.

Bressler SB, Odia I, Glassman AR, Danis RP, Grover S, Hampton GR, et al. Changes in diabetic retinopathy severity when treating diabetic macular edema with ranibizumab. Retina. 2018;38(10):1896–904.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kurihara T, Westenskow PD, Bravo S, Aguilar E, Friedlander M. Targeted deletion of Vegfa in adult mice induces vision loss. J Clin Invest. 2012;122(11):4213–7.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Patil NS, Mihalache A, Hatamnejad A, Popovic MM, Kertes PJ, Muni RH. Intravitreal steroids compared with anti-VEGF treatment for diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmol Retina. 2023;7(4):289–99.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Starace V, Battista M, Brambati M, Cavalleri M, Bertuzzi F, Amato A et al. The role of inflammation and neurodegeneration in diabetic macular edema. Ther Adv Ophthalmol. 2021;13.

Holden SE, Kapik B, Beiderbeck AB, Currie CJ. Comparison of data characterizing the clinical effectiveness of the fluocinolone intravitreal implant (ILUVIEN) in patients with diabetic macular edema from the real world, non-interventional ICE-UK study and the FAME randomized controlled trials. Curr Med Res Opin. 2019;35(7):1165–76.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Roth DB, Eichenbaum D, Malik D, Radcliffe NM, Cutino A, Small KW, et al. The 0.19-mg fluocinolone acetonide intravitreal implant for diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmol Retina. 2024;8(1):49–54.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Merrill PT, Holekamp N, Roth D, Kasper J, Grigorian R. The 0.19-mg fluocinolone acetonide intravitreal implant reduces treatment burden in diabetic macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol. 2023;248:16–23.

CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Aceves-Franco LA, Sanchez-Aguilar OE, Barragan-Arias AR, Ponce-Gallegos MA, Navarro-Partida J, Santos A. The evolution of triamcinolone acetonide therapeutic use in retinal diseases: from off-label intravitreal injection to advanced nano-drug delivery systems. Biomedicines. 2023;11(7):1901.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yang Y, Bailey C, Loewenstein A, Massin P. Intravitreal corticosteroids in diabetic macular edema. Retina. 2015;35(12):2440–9.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Elman MJ, Aiello LP, Beck RW, Bressler NM, Bressler SB, Edwards AR, et al. Randomized trial evaluating ranibizumab plus prompt or deferred laser or triamcinolone plus prompt laser for diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology. 2010;117(6):1064–e107735.