Esposito S, Noviello S, Leone S. Epidemiology and microbiology of skin and soft tissue infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2016;29(2).

Dryden MS. Skin and soft tissue infection: microbiology and epidemiology. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2009;34:S2–7.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Sukumaran V, Senanayake S. Bacterial skin and soft tissue infections. Aust Prescr. 2016;39(5):159–63.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Linz MS, Mattappallil A, Finkel D, Parker D. Clinical impact of Staphylococcus aureus skin and soft tissue infections. Antibiot [Internet]. 2023; 12(3).

Stevens DL, Bryant AE, Impetigo. Erysipelas and cellulitis. University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City (OK); 2016.

Xue Y, Zhou J, Xu BN, Li Y, Bao W, Cheng XL, et al. Global burden of bacterial skin diseases: A systematic analysis combined with sociodemographic index, 1990–2019. Front Med (Lausanne). 2022;9:861115.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Elfadadny A, Ragab RF, AlHarbi M, Badshah F, Ibáñez-Arancibia E, Farag A, et al. Antimicrobial resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa: navigating clinical impacts, current resistance trends, and innovations in breaking therapies. Front Microbiol. 2024;15:1374466.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mishra A, Jyoti A, Aayush K, Saxena J, Sharma K. Harnessing nanoparticles to overcome antimicrobial resistance: promises and challenges. Curr Pharm Des. 2025;31(4):292–306.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Marra F, Patrick David M, Chong M, McKay R, Hoang L, Bowie William R. Population-Based study of the increased incidence of skin and soft tissue infections and associated antimicrobial use. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56(12):6243–9.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Burillo A, Pulido-Pérez A, Bouza E. Current challenges in acute bacterial skin infection management. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2024;37(2).

Storandt MH, WC D, E. SA, and, Beal JR. Trends and risk factors in the antibiotic management of skin and soft tissue infections in the united States. J Dermatol Treat. 2022;33(3):1576–80.

Google Scholar 

Walsh TL, Chan L, Konopka CI, Burkitt MJ, Moffa MA, Bremmer DN, et al. Appropriateness of antibiotic management of uncomplicated skin and soft tissue infections in hospitalized adult patients. BMC Infect Dis. 2016;16(1):721.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Prabhu P, Patravale V, Joshi M. Nanocarriers for effective topical delivery of anti-infectives. Curr Nanosci. 2012;8(4):491–503.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Sangnim T, Puri V, Dheer D, Venkatesh DN, Huanbutta K, Sharma A. Nanomaterials in the wound healing process: new insights and advancements. Pharmaceutics. 2024;16(3).

Lam PL, Lee KKH, Wong RSM, Cheng GYM, Bian ZX, Chui CH, et al. Recent advances on topical antimicrobials for skin and soft tissue infections and their safety concerns. Crit Rev Microbiol. 2018;44(1):40–78.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Thakur K, Sharma G, Singh B, Chhibber S, Katare OP. Current state of nanomedicines in the treatment of topical infectious disorders. Recent Pat Antiinfect Drug Discov. 2018;13(2):127–50.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Obeid MA, Alyamani H, Alenaizat A, Tunç T, Aljabali AAA, Alsaadi MM. Nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems in overcoming bacterial resistance: current review. Microb Pathog. 2025;203:107455.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Solanki R, Makwana N, Kumar R, Joshi M, Patel A, Bhatia D, et al. Nanomedicines as a cutting-edge solution to combat antimicrobial resistance. RSC Adv. 2024;14(45):33568–86.

PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Morris AD. Cellulitis and erysipelas. BMJ Clin Evid. 2008;2008.

Shu Z, Cao J, Li H, Chen P, Cai P. Efficacy and safety of first- and second-line antibiotics for cellulitis and erysipelas: a network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Dermatol Res. 2024;316(8):603.

PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Yadav K, Krzyzaniak N, Alexander C, Scott AM, Clark J, Glasziou P, et al. The impact of antibiotics on clinical response over time in uncomplicated cellulitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Infection. 2022;50(4):859–71.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ren Z, Silverberg JI. Burden, risk factors, and infectious complications of cellulitis and erysipelas in US adults and children in the emergency department setting. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2021;84(5):1496–503.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chakraborty S, Sil A, Bhanja DB, Panigrahi A. Butterfly rash. Oman Med J. 2022;37(4):e411.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

CDC. Clinical Guidance for Group A Streptococcal Cellulitis. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Updated March 1, 2024. Accessed April 20. 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/group-a-strep/hcp/clinical-guidance/cellulitis.html#:~:text=Treatment%20options,susceptible%20to%20beta%2Dlactam%20antibiotics

Lin HS, Lin PT, Tsai YS, Wang SH, Chi CC. Interventions for bacterial folliculitis and boils (furuncles and carbuncles). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021;2(2):Cd013099.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, Dellinger EP, Goldstein EJC, Gorbach SL, et al. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the infectious diseases society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59(2):e10–52.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Talan DA, Moran GJ, Krishnadasan A, Abrahamian FM, Lovecchio F, Karras DJ, et al. Subgroup analysis of antibiotic treatment for skin abscesses. Ann Emerg Med. 2018;71(1):21–30.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Singer AJ, Thode HC Jr. Systemic antibiotics after incision and drainage of simple abscesses: a meta-analysis. Emerg Med J. 2014;31(7):576–8.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bowen AC, Mahé A, Hay RJ, Andrews RM, Steer AC, Tong SY, et al. The global epidemiology of impetigo: A systematic review of the population prevalence of impetigo and pyoderma. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(8):e0136789.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gahlawat G, Tesfaye W, Bushell M, Abrha S, Peterson GM, Mathew C, et al. Emerging treatment strategies for impetigo in endemic and nonendemic settings: A systematic review. Clin Ther. 2021;43(6):986–1006.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Koning S, van der Sande R, Verhagen AP, van Suijlekom-Smit LW, Morris AD, Butler CC, et al. Interventions for impetigo. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;1(1):Cd003261.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zulu M, Monde N, Nkhoma P, Malama S, Munyeme M. Nontuberculous mycobacteria in humans, animals, and water in zambia: A systematic review. Front Trop Dis. 2021;Volume 2–2021.

Sharma SK, Upadhyay V. Epidemiology, diagnosis & treatment of non-tuberculous mycobacterial diseases. Indian J Med Res. 2020;152(3):185–226.

PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Wang SH, Pancholi P. Mycobacterial skin and soft tissue infection. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2014;16(11).

George M. Cutaneous non-tuberculous mycobacterial infections: an update. Journal of Skin and Sexually Transmitted Diseases.5.

Zhou J, Jia Q, Liu L, Liang L, Zhang H, He C, et al. Epidemiology and clinical outcomes in skin and soft tissue nontuberculous mycobacteria infections: A retrospective study. J Infect Public Health. 2025;18(3):102655.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hannah CE, Ford BA, Chung J, Ince D, Wanat KA. Characteristics of nontuberculous mycobacterial infections at a Midwestern tertiary hospital: A retrospective study of 365 patients. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2020;7(6):ofaa173.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gonzalez-Santiago TM, Drage LA. Nontuberculous mycobacteria: skin and soft tissue infections. Dermatol Clin. 2015;33(3):563–77.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Griffith DE, Aksamit T, Brown-Elliott BA, Catanzaro A, Daley C, Gordin F, et al. An official ATS/IDSA statement: diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of nontuberculous mycobacterial diseases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;175(4):367–416.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Talhari C, Talhari S, Penna GO. Clinical aspects of leprosy. Clin Dermatol. 2015;33(1):26–37.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yang J, Li X, Sun Y, Zhang L, Jin G, Li G, et al. Global epidemiology of leprosy from 2010 to 2020: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the proportion of sex, type, grade 2 deformity and age. Pathog Glob Health. 2022;116(8):467–76.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

WHO. Leprosy. World Health Organization, Updated. January 24, 2025. Accessed April 20, 2025. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leprosy

Chaves LL, Patriota Y, Soares-Sobrinho JL, Vieira ACC, Costa Lima SA, Reis S. Drug delivery systems on leprosy therapy. Mov Towards Eradication?? Pharm. 2020;12(12):1–19.

Google Scholar 

Bunyaratavej S, Leeyaphan C, Chanyachailert P, Pattanaprichakul P, Ongsri P, Kulthanan K. Clinical manifestations, risk factors and quality of life in patients with pitted keratolysis: a cross-sectional study in cadets. Br J Dermatol. 2018;179(5):1220–1.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Longshaw CM, Wright JD, Farrell AM, Holland KT. Kytococcus sedentarius, the organism associated with pitted keratolysis, produces two keratin-degrading enzymes. J Appl Microbiol. 2002;93(5):810–6.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Singh G, Naik CL. Pitted keratolysis. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. 2005;71(3):213–5.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Palaniappan V, Murthy AB, Karthikeyan K. Pitted keratolysis. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2023;48(9):978–83.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ezebuenyi MC, Brakta F, Onor IO, Sarpong DF, Bryant-Burks K, Figueroa JE 2. Evaluation of physician prescribing patterns for antibiotics in the treatment of nonnecrotizing skin and soft tissue infections. P T. 2018;43(5):287–92.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Feldstein D, Sloane PD, Weber D, Ward K, Reed D, Zimmerman S. Current prescribing practices for skin and soft tissue infections in nursing homes. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2017;18(3):265–70.