United Nations, D.o.E.a.S.A., Population Division (2022) World population prospects 2022. cited 2022; Available from: https://population.un.org/wpp/

China, N.B.o.S.o (2019) China statistical yearbook 2019. cited 2019; Available from: http://www.stats.gov.cn/sj/ndsj/2019/indexeh.htm

Lv B et al (2023) Mortality of Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias in China: past and future decades. Int J Public Health 68:1605129

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jia L et al (2020) Prevalence, risk factors, and management of dementia and mild cognitive impairment in adults aged 60 years or older in China: a cross-sectional study. Lancet Public Health 5(12):e661–e671

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jia L et al (2020) Dementia in China: epidemiology, clinical management, and research advances. Lancet Neurol 19(1):81–92

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Guo L et al (2021) Social isolation, loneliness and functional disability in Chinese older women and men: a longitudinal study. Age Ageing 50(4):1222–1228

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Griffin SC et al (2020) Isolation, not loneliness or cynical hostility, predicts cognitive decline in older Americans. J Aging Health 32(1):52–60

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yu B et al (2021) Social isolation, rather than loneliness, is associated with cognitive decline in older adults: the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study. Psychol Med 51(14):2414–2421

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hajek A, Riedel-Heller SG, König HH (2020) Perceived social isolation and cognitive functioning. Longitudinal findings based on the German Ageing Survey. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 35(3):276–281

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Evans IEM et al (2018) Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people. PLoS ONE 13(8):e0201008

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Read S, Comas-Herrera A, Grundy E (2020) Social isolation and memory decline in later-life. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 75(2):367–376

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Xiang X et al (2021) Dual trajectories of social isolation and dementia in older adults: a population-based longitudinal study. J Aging Health 33(1–2):63–74

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wen Z et al (2023) Factors associated with social isolation in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Med Dir Assoc 24(3):322-330.e6

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Qi X et al (2023) Social isolation, sleep disturbance, and cognitive functioning (HRS): a longitudinal mediation study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 78(10):1826–1833

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yin J et al (2019) Exploring the bidirectional associations between loneliness and cognitive functioning over 10 years: the English longitudinal study of ageing. Int J Epidemiol 48(6):1937–1948

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Porcelli S et al (2019) Social brain, social dysfunction and social withdrawal. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 97:10–33

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rewerska-Juśko M, Rejdak K (2020) Social stigma of people with dementia. J Alzheimers Dis 78(4):1339–1343

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhang Y et al (2023) Loneliness, social isolation, depression and anxiety among the elderly in Shanghai: findings from a longitudinal study. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 110:104980

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Inoue K et al (2023) Social isolation and depressive symptoms among older adults: a multiple bias analysis using a longitudinal study in Japan. Ann Epidemiol 77:110–118

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Si L et al (2023) Social isolation after chronic unpredictable mild stress perpetuates depressive-like behaviors, memory deficits and social withdrawal via inhibiting ERK/KEAP1/NRF2 signaling. J Affect Disord 324:576–588

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Alshammari TK et al (2020) Analysis of the molecular and behavioral effects of acute social isolation on rats. Behav Brain Res 377:112191

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hayley S, Hakim AM, Albert PR (2021) Depression, dementia and immune dysregulation. Brain 144(3):746–760

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang Q et al (2022) Association between loneliness and its components and cognitive function among older Chinese adults living in nursing homes: a mediation of depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and sleep disturbances. BMC Geriatr 22(1):959

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhao Y et al (2014) Cohort profile: the China health and retirement longitudinal study (CHARLS). Int J Epidemiol 43(1):61–68

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shankar A et al (2017) Social isolation and loneliness: prospective associations with functional status in older adults. Health Psychol 36(2):179–187

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Guo L et al (2023) Evaluation of social isolation trajectories and incident cardiovascular disease among middle-aged and older adults in China: national cohort study. JMIR Public Health Surveill 9:e45677

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhang J et al (2023) The longitudinal bidirectional association between sarcopenia and cognitive function in community-dwelling older adults: findings from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study. J Glob Health 13:04182

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

MacKinnon DP, Fairchild AJ, Fritz MS (2007) Mediation analysis. Annu Rev Psychol 58:593–614

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Preacher KJ, Kelley K (2011) Effect size measures for mediation models: quantitative strategies for communicating indirect effects. Psychol Methods 16(2):93–115

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

National Academies of Sciences, E., et al. (2020) Social isolation and loneliness in older adults: opportunities for the health care system. National Academies Press (US) Copyright 2020 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved., Washington

Google Scholar 

Rafnsson SB et al (2020) Loneliness, social integration, and incident dementia over 6 years: prospective findings from the english longitudinal study of ageing. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 75(1):114–124

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Paul E, Bu F, Fancourt D (2021) Loneliness and risk for cardiovascular disease: mechanisms and future directions. Curr Cardiol Rep 23(6):68

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Attems J, Jellinger KA (2014) The overlap between vascular disease and Alzheimer’s disease–lessons from pathology. BMC Med 12:206

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kulshreshtha A et al (2023) Association of stress with cognitive function among older black and white US adults. JAMA Netw Open 6(3):e231860

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Drinkwater E, Davies C, Spires-Jones TL (2022) Potential neurobiological links between social isolation and Alzheimer’s disease risk. Eur J Neurosci 56(9):5397–5412

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Luo M (2023) Social isolation, loneliness, and depressive symptoms: a twelve-year population study of temporal dynamics. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 78(2):280–290

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cheng SY et al (2020) Advance care planning in Asian culture. Jpn J Clin Oncol 50(9):976–989

Article  PubMed