Buehler L, Fayfman M, Alexopoulos AS et al (2015) The impact of hyperglycemia and obesity on hospitalization costs and clinical outcome in general surgery patients. J Diabetes Complications 29(8):1177–1182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2015.07.027

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Umpierrez GE, Isaacs SD, Bazargan N, You X, Thaler LM, Kitabchi AE (2002) Hyperglycemia: an independent marker of in-hospital mortality in patients with undiagnosed diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87(3):978–982. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.87.3.8341

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Turchin A, Matheny ME, Shubina M, Scanlon JV, Greenwood B, Pendergrass ML (2009) Hypoglycemia and clinical outcomes in patients with diabetes hospitalized in the general ward. Diabetes Care 32(7):1153–1157. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc08-2127

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Nirantharakumar K, Marshall T, Kennedy A, Narendran P, Hemming K, Coleman JJ (2012) Hypoglycaemia is associated with increased length of stay and mortality in people with diabetes who are hospitalized. Diabet Med 29(12):e445–e448. https://doi.org/10.1111/dme.12002

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Garg R, Hurwitz S, Turchin A, Trivedi A (2013) Hypoglycemia, with or without insulin therapy, is associated with increased mortality among hospitalized patients. Diabetes Care 36(5):1107–1110. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc12-1296

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Brutsaert E, Carey M, Zonszein J (2014) The clinical impact of inpatient hypoglycemia. J Diabetes Complications 28(4):565–572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2014.03.002

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Brodovicz KG, Mehta V, Zhang Q et al (2013) Association between hypoglycemia and inpatient mortality and length of hospital stay in hospitalized, insulin-treated patients. Curr Med Res Opin 29(2):101–107. https://doi.org/10.1185/03007995.2012.754744

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

American Diabetes Association (2024) 16. Diabetes care in the hospital: standards of medical care in diabetes – 2024. Diabetes Care 47(Suppl 1):S295–S306. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc24-S016

Article  Google Scholar 

Ruan Y, Moysova Z, Tan GD, Lumb A, Davies J, Rea RD (2020) Inpatient hypoglycaemia: understanding who is at risk. Diabetologia 63(7):1299–1304. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-020-05139-y

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Beck RW, Riddlesworth TD, Ruedy K et al (2017) Continuous glucose monitoring versus usual care in patients with type 2 diabetes receiving multiple daily insulin injections: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 167(6):365–374. https://doi.org/10.7326/M16-2855

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Beck RW, Riddlesworth T, Ruedy K et al (2017) Effect of continuous glucose monitoring on glycemic control in adults with type 1 diabetes using insulin injections: the DIAMOND randomized clinical trial. JAMA 317(4):371–378. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.19975

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Battelino T, Conget I, Olsen B et al (2012) The use and efficacy of continuous glucose monitoring in type 1 diabetes treated with insulin pump therapy: a randomised controlled trial. Diabetologia 55(12):3155–3162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-012-2708-9

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Martens T, Beck RW, Bailey R et al (2021) Effect of continuous glucose monitoring on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes treated with basal insulin: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 325(22):2262–2272. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.7444

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Buschur EO, Faulds E, Dungan K (2022) CGM in the hospital: is it ready for prime time? Curr Diab Rep 22(9):451–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11892-022-01484-x

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Korytkowski MT, Muniyappa R, Antinori-Lent K et al (2022) Management of hyperglycemia in hospitalized adult patients in non-critical care settings: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 107(8):2101–2128. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgac278

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wallia A, Umpierrez GE, Rushakoff RJ et al (2017) Consensus statement on inpatient use of continuous glucose monitoring. J Diabetes Sci Technol 11(5):1036–1044. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296817706151

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

R Core Team (2023) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria

Wickham H, Bryan J (2023) readxl: read excel files. R package version 1.4.3. Available from https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=readxl. Accessed 1 Jun 2023

Wickham H (2016) ggplot2: elegant graphics for data analysis. Springer-Verlag, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24277-4_9

Book  Google Scholar 

Schmolze D (2017) ega: error grid analysis. R package version 2.0.0. Available from https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=ega. Accessed 1 Jun 2023

Shah VN, Laffel LM, Wadwa RP, Garg SK (2018) Performance of a factory-calibrated real-time continuous glucose monitoring system utilizing an automated sensor applicator. Diabetes Technol Ther 20(6):428–433. https://doi.org/10.1089/dia.2018.0143

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Marak C, Calhoun P, Damiano E, Russell SJ, Ruedy KJ, Beck RW (2023) Testing the real-world accuracy of the Dexcom G6 Pro CGM during the insulin-only bionic pancreas pivotal trial. Diabetes Technol Ther 25(11):817–821. https://doi.org/10.1089/dia.2023.0287

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Davis GM, Spanakis EK, Migdal AL et al (2021) Accuracy of Dexcom G6 continuous glucose monitoring in non-critically ill hospitalized patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 44(7):1641–1646. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc20-2856

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Finn E, Schlichting L, Grau L, Douglas IS, Pereira RI (2023) Real-world accuracy of CGM in inpatient critical and noncritical care settings at a safety-net hospital. Diabetes Care 46(10):1825–1830. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc23-0089

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Singh LG, Satyarengga M, Marcano I et al (2020) Reducing inpatient hypoglycemia in the general wards using real-time continuous glucose monitoring: the glucose telemetry system, a randomized clinical trial. Diabetes Care 43(11):2736–2743. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc20-0840

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Spanakis EK, Urrutia A, Galindo RJ et al (2022) Continuous glucose monitoring-guided insulin administration in hospitalized patients with diabetes: a randomized clinical trial. Diabetes Care 45(10):2369–2375. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc22-0716

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Fortmann AL, SpierlingBagsic SR, Talavera L et al (2020) Glucose as the fifth vital sign: a randomized controlled trial of continuous glucose monitoring in a non-ICU hospital setting. Diabetes Care 43(11):2873–2877. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc20-1016

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Galindo RJ, Migdal AL, Davis GM et al (2020) Comparison of the FreeStyle Libre Pro flash continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) system and point-of-care capillary glucose testing in hospitalized patients with type 2 diabetes treated with basal-bolus insulin regimen. Diabetes Care 43(11):2730–2735. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc19-2073

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Scully KJ, Sherwood JS, Martin K et al (2022) Continuous glucose monitoring and HbA1c in cystic fibrosis: clinical correlations and implications for CFRD diagnosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 107(4):e1444–e1454. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgab857

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bode BW, Schwartz S, Stubbs HA, Block JE (2005) Glycemic characteristics in continuously monitored patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes: normative values. Diabetes Care 28(10):2361–2366. https://doi.org/10.2337/diacare.28.10.2361